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This chapter compares Western/North African and Eastern/Omani Ibâḍî accounts of the munâẓara (debate) that took place at Ḥarûrâ’ before the Battle of Nahrawân to reveal two similar yet distinct traditions. A further comparison with non-Ibâḍî (i.e. al-Ṭabarî, al-Balâdhurî, al-Baghdâdî, etc.) versions of the debate shows that it is the Western/North African tradition that shares certain features and narrative structures with non-Ibâḍî accounts. The key to understanding these particular textual configurations is the figure of the last Basran Imâm, Abû Sufyân Maḥbûb Ibn al-Raḥîl. Abû Sufyân wrote his Kitâb Abî Sufyân on the commission of the Rustumid Imâm Aflaḥ Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhâb, and likely incorporated Basran and Kûfan Ibâḍî traditions that did not gain wide currency among Ibâḍîs in Oman. For this reason, non-Ibâḍî and Western munâẓara accounts share certain characteristics that are not present in Eastern accounts, even though Oman is geographically closer to the places where non-Ibâḍî accounts likely originated.
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berian Umayyad relations with the Ibāḍī Rustumids and the Ṣufrī Midrārids have not been well understood. After an initial period of Khārijite rebellion against the Umayyads in the 120s/740s, in which Khārijite revolutions in North Africa spilled over into the Iberian Peninsula, profound ties developed between the Umayyad amīrs, and the Midrārid and Rustumid imāms. In the far Maghrib, where ‘Abbāsid power did not reach, trade—especially the trade in human beings—brought these erstwhile political and religious enemies together. Relationships between these groups lasted well beyond the destruction of the Midrārid and Rustumid dynasties in the early fourth/tenth century. This paper re-examines the textual and numismatic evidence for Ibāḍī, Ṣufrī, Iberian Umayyad (and even early ‘Abbāsid) relations in order to propose that strong economic interests based primarily in the slave trade underlay the political ties that developed in the late second/eighth century between these groups.
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Early Ibadi engagements with the Murji'a reflect a profound awareness, and probably actual encounters with, Murji'a in the early Islamic world. This paper investigates the image of Murji'ism that appears in later, 6th/12th century Ibadi writings, a time when Murji'ism had ceased to exist and its main ideas had filtered into the Sunni consensus. This paper will show that later Ibadi authors, just as their Sunni counterparts, struggled to present Murji'ism as a separate firqa. Moreover, medieval Ibadi writings on the Murji'a betray a deep awareness of contemporary Sunni heresiography on the Murji'a
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With few exceptions, scholarly presentations of the Ibāḍī “stages of religion” (masālik al-dīn) and their corresponding Imāms (i.e. imām al-ẓuhūr, imām al-difāʿ, imām al-shirā', and imām al-kitmān) propose a simplified overview of the institution that is based on post-Ibāḍī renaissance thought on the Imāmate. This paper investigates the pre-renaissance usages of the masālik al-dīn by comparing sixth/twelfth-century Arabian and North African Ibāḍī texts on the subject. It demonstrates that Eastern and Western Ibāḍīs manipulated the concepts central to the later masālik al-dīn ideal to reflect the particular needs of each respective community. While the articulations of the masālik al-dīn differed according to region, they simultaneously utilized a similar vocabulary. This convergence implies an earlier and inherited conceptual system (most likely from the earliest Basran Ibāḍī umma) that was adapted in the medieval period to fulfil the unique needs of each community.
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