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This work offers a new framework for the study of the early Islamic history of the Maghrib. It proposes interpretations based on social and economic factors. The Maghrib prior to the Islamic expansion was divided into two areas: the littoral that was agriculturally oriented and the interior that was dependent on trade. With Egypt's fall the Muslims who themselves were of a commercial background sought the support of the Maghribis of the interior (merchants) in exchange for an equal chance to thrive within the Islamic market. Thereafter Mashriquis and their Maghribi allies joined hands and attacked the littoral. The littoral and Spain were not completley assimilated within the Islamic fold until the ninth decade of the first century. Resistance movements blocked Islamic expansion not because of racial differences but because of economic factors. The littoral being self-sufficient was less attracted to Islamic markets. To undermine its economy Muslims and their Maghribi allies founded cities to divert trade from the sea coast to the Maghrib. This process facilitated Arabo-Islamic expansion in the southern parts of the Maghrib and encouraged other Maghribis to join the expansion. This is the context for understanding the process of Arabization, for those Maghribis who were interested in concluding commercial transactions in the Mashriq found it imperative to learn its language and to adopt its culture. Arabization was further consolidated by other factors: equitable distribution of land, office, and priviledge among Maghribis and Mashriqis. Islamization was a later process that was adopted by the Maghribis to serve strategic purposes. The foundation of the Diwans and the corresponding bureaucratisation of this embryonic state registered people and properties according to Shari'a. Maghribis being neither Dhimmis nor Muslims and fearing the loss of their advantages accumulated throughout the early expansion, adopted the faith. Furthermore, to enjoy their political advantages the Maghribis had to convert. Finally, this study contends that in order to understand the rise of Kharijism and its divisions in the Maghribis and their conflict with the non-Kharijite, future researchers will have to focus on the mutuality of interests that joined Maghribis to Mashriqis.
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This thesis sets out to examine the portrayal of women as an important literary aspect of the Libyan short story. An attempt has been made to identify the main features of such portrayals and to point out the degree to which major short story writers in Libya are conscious, in one way or another, of the importance of the problems confronting Libyan women and the need for their emancipation. The method adopted for this purpose is to discuss the varying levels of consciousness of the problem against a background of modern literary criticism which, although not fully developed in Libya, is nonetheless becoming increasingly important. As a corollary, it has been possible to discuss various ideological attitudes only in relation to the formal and structural issues which are often raised regarding the short story as a literary genre. Among these issues are the organic interdependence of form and content, success or failure in attempting to objectify human experience in an adequate artistic form, and the degree to which ideological considerations or commitment can be regarded as relevant to our appreciation of the Libyan short story as an art-form. The degree of ideological commitment to the problem of female emancipation is not, in itself, a determinant of artistic success, but it may pave the way for literary creation in which a progressive role for women in Libyan society is combined with fuller consciousness of the importance of the formal elements of the Libyan short story.
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La structure socio-economique du zaire etait equilibree avant la colonisation. Cet equilibre qui s'articulait autour du clan et de la famille etait rompu avec la colonisation par le mecanisme de l'introduction de l'economie monetaire. Celle-ci a fait eclater le systeme de parente. La solidarite et la reciprocite des actes de production se sont effondrees. La vertu du beau temps est devenue vice de temps de l'espoir. Apres l'independance politique, l'etat zairois va chercher a acceder a l'independance economique. Certaines mesures ont ete mises en place depuis 1960. Cette politique economique qui avait une base nationaliste va echouer suite aux incoherences et aux contraintes internes et externes. Ces mesures vont donner naissance a une bourgeoisie parasitaire qui ne fait que soutenir chaque fois une politique impopulaire au vu de la masse desheritee. L'etat renforce son alliance avec la bourgeoisie neo-coloniale et bureaucratique. L'echec de cette politique economique va renforcer la structure de dependance du pays et transformer ses rapports vis-a-vis de l'exterieur. Cette transformation des rapports va entrainer le repli de la belgique, la penetration de la france et l'arrivee de fmi. En fait, la politique economique du zaire est et sera pour longtemps un instrument de dependance economique et de maintien du statu quo. The socio0economic structure of zaire was in equilibrium before the colonization. Based upon the family and the clan, that equilbrium was upset with the colonization through the introduction of money. The kinship system was dislocated. Consequently, there was no longer a community of interests. After the political independence, the stade was engaged to reach the economic independence. Some measures were adopted since 1960. Despite its nationalistic basis, that economic policy failed. This was due to external andinternal constraints but these measures allowed the development of a parasitic middle-class which is about to support any unpopular policy. Links between the government and the neo-colonial and bureaucratic middle-class were strengthened. The failure of the economic policy contributed to reinforce the structure of dependency of the country and to transform its relations with foreign countries. With these transformations, the belgium withdrew, giving way to the french penetration, also followed by the i.m.f. In fact, the economic policy of zaire is and will be for a long term an instrument of economic dependency and keeping of the status quo
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