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Negotiations that produce durable outcomes are rather rare in international negotiations, which are often viewed as a zero-sum game in which one’s success is tied to the other’s loss. The Iran nuclear deal, negotiated in 2015, is a case in point. The original deal was the product of unbalanced negotiations. The deal’s compliance pull resulted weak, making it relatively easy for President Donald Trump to pull the US out of the deal in 2018. The search for more constructive ways of negotiation led to the path that became this book. An example of inclusive negotiations that produce durable outcomes was found in Oman, a historical seafaring nation, situated on the southeast corner of the Arabian peninsula and bordered by the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean. In Oman, water is the lifeblood of all life. Inclusive agreements over irrigation channels developed into Omani culture over a considerable time span from custom, Ibadi Islamic principles and tribal law. The Omanis became known as the people of consultation, Ahl Al-Shura.
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Omani water diplomacy has its roots in the cultural landscape of the Omani society. Omani falaj communities formed microcosms in which principles of consultation, mediation and fairness developed over centuries into an internalized code of conduct whose influence would later extend also to the conduct on the nation’s foreing policy. Sultan Qaboos’ rise into power in 1970 signalled a significant break with the isolationist past. From then on, Omani foreign policies departed from dialogue, moderation and inclusion. With these cultural and political resources in the diplomacy toolkit, Oman was ready to take an active role at the Water Resources Working Group of the Middle East Peace Process. Omanis were well-placed to understand the implications of sufficient water supply for regional security. The desalination of sea water was considered to be the key for desert countries in the Middle East for finding new sources of supply of drinking water. The sharing of scientific and technological expertise became the goal of a small group of Omani water architects. A common effort, an international research centre on water desalination based in Muscat was beginning to take shape in the heated climate of international politics around the Arab-Israeli conflict.
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In the volatile context of the Middle East Peace Process, financial independence of the Research Centre was a necessity. It would mean independence to decide on research, training and technical requirements on the basis of project appropriateness alone. Resilience, extra miles and diplomatic tact were required from the water architects to secure the sound funding of the Centre. The Centre was going to be based on grass-root cooperation between experts of different countries, including Israel, solidly committed to making the Centre a reality. Through benefits of participation, common ground was prepared for the betterment of Arab-Israeli—relationships. The Establishment Agreement of the Middle East Desalination Research Centre was signed in Muscat in 1996 by the founding members, Oman, the US, Japan, Israel, South Korea and the EU. Others would join later on to carry out important research cooperation on water desalination technologies. MEDRC became an independent international organisation under Omani law and a forum for research cooperation for purposes of solving the common problem of water scarcity. Lessons learnt of the MEDRC have potential wider applicability for creating professional grass-root cooperation in the region.
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Omani society is fundamentally a tribal mosaic. The main tribal confederations since the eighteenth century civil war are the Hinawi and the Ghafiri. The patchwork of Omani tribes belongs to one of these confederations. Omani villages have conserved their tribal outlook, tribal values and tribal structure even if they form sedentarised units instead of a bedu nomadic lifestyle. Tribal alliances between tribes and tribal formation/deformation within tribes has been a continuous process. Tribal law has played an inherent part in the overall formation of Omani legal culture. Central for tribal law are its tendencies towards mediation and the avoidance of conflict. Tribes are egalitarian yet the collective interest is the foundation of tribal law. Every conflict is resolved through arbitration, negotiation or mediation by a third party. All members of the community are expected to do their part in resolving disputes, by restraining people from using force, participating in the mediation process or sharing the costs and the benefits of restitution. The mediation system is sophisticated and highly structured, and it involves a great deal of deliberate negotiation and dialogue to ensure that conflicting parties are content with the resolution. The dispute-resolution system relies on compromise and mutual benefit, rather than on imposed punishment or designation of losers and winners. Collective responsibility implies that tribes are ultimately responsible for the acts of their members and for forcing them to implement verdicts of mediation or arbitration.
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- Abū Ḥamza al-Mukhtār b. ʿAwf (2)
- Abū ‘l-Yaqẓān, Ibrāhim (1888-1973) (23)
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(620)
- Entre 1900 et 1909 (10)
- Entre 1920 et 1929 (7)
- Entre 1930 et 1939 (22)
- Entre 1940 et 1949 (6)
- Entre 1950 et 1959 (14)
- Entre 1960 et 1969 (33)
- Entre 1970 et 1979 (76)
- Entre 1980 et 1989 (185)
- Entre 1990 et 1999 (267)
-
Entre 2000 et 2026
(2 259)
- Entre 2000 et 2009 (478)
- Entre 2010 et 2019 (1 083)
- Entre 2020 et 2026 (698)
- Inconnue (12)