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عمان جزء من الخليج العربي تتميز بموقع جغرافي مهم، فهي تحتل الركن الجنوبي الشرقي لشبه الجزيرة العربية الذي يتمتع بحصانة متميزة بسبب الحواجز الطبيعية المحيطة به، حيث يحيطها من الشمال والشرق والجنوب على التوالي كل من الخليج العربي وبحر عمان وبحر العرب وتطل من خلاله على المحيط الهندي. وبذلك تمكنت عمان بحكم موقعها الإستراتيجي المفتوح على العالم الخارجي من التحكم في معاير التجارة العالمية مما أكسبها تميزا إستراتيجيا، وكذلك شخصية مهمة جعلتها محط أنظار الدول العظمى لتتنافس عليها. وقد سعت بريطانيا للحفاظ على أمن واستقرار امبراطوريتها في الهند وتأمين مصالحها الإستعمارية في الخليج العربي فتصدت للدول الاستعمارية الأخرى المنافسة لها سيما فرنسا والتي كانت تسعى لمحاربة الوجود البريطاني في الهند وكسر احتكار بريطانيا التجاري والملاحي في منطقة الخليج العربي وعمان التي أصبحت محورا أساسيا من محاور الصراع الدولي، حيث سعت فرنسا من خلال تحركاتها العسكرية والديبلوماسية الى كسب ود حكام عمان ومحاولة إبعادهم عن النفوذ البريطاني تمهيدا للسيطرة على طرق التجارة البريطانية ومن ثم فرض شروطها على بريطانيا في الهند والحصول منها على امتيازات في أماكن أخرى من مناطق التنافس الأوروبي الاستعماري في العالم وتصاعدت حدة الصراع بين القوتين العظيمتين آنذاك في عمان، وتحث هذه الدراسة في مرحلة زمنية مهمة من مراحل التاريخ العماني لمعرفة أسباب الصراع البريطاني الفرنسي في عمان خلال الفترة من عام 1897 إلى عام 1913م، والنتائج التي أدى إليها الصراع. وتم تحديد الإطار الزمني لهذه الدراسة في الفترة الممتدة بين عامي 1897-1913م، وهي فترة من حكم السلطان فيصل بن تركي لعمان وقد دارت فيها أهم ثلاث أزمات أدت إلى تدهور العلاقات بين الدولتين حيث إن كلتا الدولتين كانت تتمنى النفس بموقع عمان الإستراتيجي القريب من مستعمراتها. واختياري لدراسة هذه الفترة جاء للكشف عن أهم جوانت الصراع وتوضيح الحقائق المرتبطة به، وذلك لكون هذه الفترة مهمة في التاريخ العماني ولم تحظ بدراسة متعمقة مستقلة على الرغم من كثرة المؤلفات والدراسات التي تناولت التاريخ العماني، وذلك أن كثيرا ممكن كتبوا عن السياسة البريطانية والفرنسية في عمان هم من المستشرقين والأجانب الذين اعتمدوا في كتاباهم على التقارير السياسية لحكوماتهم ولذلك اعتراها الكثير من التشويش في الحقائق التاريخية كما أن الباحث اضاف مادة علمية حديثة مدعمة بالوثائق التي تزيح الغموض عن الكثير من الأحداث التي تتعلق بموضوع الدراسة، وأحسب أن موضوع هذه الدراسة من الموضوعات المهمة نظرا لارتباطها بأحداث سياسية خلفت نتائج مؤثرة في تاريخ الصراع البريطاني الفرنسي في عمان

The prolonged decline of the Umayyads is among the most intriguing episodes in Muslim history, and has generated a lasting impact on subsequent Muslim socio-political and religious thinking. The early sources for the Umayyad period comprise various conflicting reports, and problems of reconstruction become more complex since most sources were composed during Abbāsid times, meaning they were generally hostile towards the Umayyads. The time frame of the study covers the last eight years of the Umayyad empire; more precisely the period from the death of Hishām b. Abd al-Malik (d. 125/743) to the end of the Umayyad era 132/750. Meticulous and careful examination of the pre-modern sources, combined with modern research approaches has helped in identifying the objectives of various early historiographers in their descriptions of Umayyad decline. The study focuses primarily on analysing the pre-modern sources (specifically al-Ya'qubi, al-Tabari, al-Mas'udi, Ibn Athir and Ibn Khaldun) and applies a thematic approach to the source materials, through which the various strands that defined and illustrated that decline can be followed. This makes it possible to evaluate how extensively each of three themes (the role of religious movements, the mawāli, and al-'asabiya) was dealt with in the early historiographies and to what extent they differ from one another. The development of religious ideas and how they contributed to the fall of the Umayyads and the rise of oppositional forces is also central in this regard and three religious movements (the 'Abbasids, Khawarij, and Qadariya) are explored. On the basis of the information gleaned from comparing the writings of the early historiographers, the study has also adopted a comparative study of modern historiography and approaches in assessing the Umayyad fall. Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony is used to explain and interpret aspects of the formation and development of the Umayyad period; it can also be used to assess the viability of the ideology, organisation and strategy of the early oppositional movements as a counter-hegemonic ideological force.

This research offers a systematic analysis of the physical features of residential Vernacular Architecture (VA) of Nafusa Mountain Region (NMR) in Libya, linking them to the governance system of heritage conservation in Libya and to the Responsible Institutions (RIs). Libya has experienced different historic stages, such as the Amazigh, Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Muslims, and Italian colonization. It is distinguished by a historic continuity, which has enriched its historic and architectural features. This study investigates and documents the main physical unique features of residential VA in NMR and related factors that influence Conservation Processes (CPs) within the current governance system delivered by the RIs. By clarifying the elements that make residential VA unique and by understanding current issues undermining its effective conservation, this study offers valuable and original insights for informing future conservation policies and for putting in place measures aimed at restoring, preserving, and maintaining this unique architectural and historical heritage. This research also produces new knowledge about VA of the NMR in Libya, a topic on which no studies have been available so far. By filling the gap in current knowledge, this study raises awareness about the value of the VA in the NMR and contributes to support the conservation of such a unique heritage. The research methodology for this study uses both qualitative and quantitative approaches (Mixed Methods). The researcher has selected and justified three examples of Vernacular Dwellings (VDs) in NMR and collected the data through observation, analysis of dwellings maps, photos, interviews and a questionnaire. Visual survey has been conducted by visiting relevant sites and systematically collecting visual evidence, such as photographic and technical survey including structures and technological spatial details. Spatial analysis methods have been adopted to uncover the rationale of the VA development and construction. Semi-structured interviews with relevant parties have been administered at senior, middle, and junior management level of the RIs and complemented with the review of archival documents and relevant government reports. Findings from the research outline the main challenges to VA in NMR that include a lack of appreciation and understanding of heritage among owners, scarcity of local materials and traditional building skills, lack of government support as well as insufficient documentation. All the findings were triangulated prior to the development of the initial recommendations and further decision-makers and expert validation was obtained to establish the final recommendations. Conclusions and recommendations on how to preserve residential VA in NMR context will assist policy makers in Libya, when setting strategic national plans for VA conservation, and will provide a useful point of reference for academics and researchers.

It is a well-known fact that Libya is a country which has received very little serious study in the field of Islamic art and aroheaology. In Libya most research and study in art and archeaology has been centred on the Greek and Roman heritag+e$ and even the prehistoric era has received considerably more attention than the Islamic period. In the past ten years, howeverg excavations have been carried out in some Islamic sites both in the east and south of the country, yet so many other sites remain unexcavated and unsurveyed. The area of the Jabal Nafüsa is considered to be one of these important but neglected regions. The impetus behind this thesis, therefore, is to contribute to the present knowledge and it aims at paving the way for those who intend to go further by studying the remains of this area in greater detail. The other purpose of this thesis is to throw some light on some Islamic sites which should receive priority when carrying out excavations in the Jabal NaMsa. One obstacle that meets the scholar is to establish the historical background relative to the area of study. In the Jabal Nafüsa the historical information that we possess is scarce and sometimes obscure. This thesis contains an attempt to study the history of this area, especially concerning the first centuries of the Islamic era. Analogy and comparison were applied in order to form the historical background needed for studying some old Islamic monuments in the Jabal NafUsa. In chapters two, three and four, the emphasis is apparent on studying architecture and decorations. In the field of architecture a detailed study was applied to some Islamic remains in the area. These selected monuments reveal the variety of architectural features in the Jabal. Again comparative examples show the outaide influence on the Jabal and in addition architectural oharacteristics of local origin could be pointed out. The same method was followed when discussing the decorations which were found in some of the mosques mentioned. Comparison between these decorations and other similar dated examples made it possible to see the influence of other decorations found in different parts of the Islamic world. In chapter five the study of some mosques in Tmizda area has revealed new elements represented in the Christian and Roman influence on the Jabal. Chapter six is devoted to inscriptions which were found in various mosques in the Jabal Nafffsa. Comparative material helped in studying their style as well as suggesting an approximate date concerning the inscriptions of the Jabal. Finally this thesis could be considered as a humble attempt to illustrate some aspects of the Jabal Nafnsa, not only in respect to its importance in Islamic studies, but also in connection to other areas of study upon which some questions have been raised throughout the thesis.

Al-Ibadiyah, or al-Abadiyah, is one of the earliest Islamic sects, the foundation of which goes back to the first half of the first century H. The school took its name from 'Abdullah b. Ibad, one of its early theologians. The name Ibadiyah applies to a Mslim group which was considered by most writers as a moderate branch of the Kharijite movement. The adherents of this school still form a number of independent communities holding fast to its teachings. The largest of these lives today in "Uman and Masqat in South East Arabia. There are other minorities in Zanzibar off the east coast of Africa, in Jabal Nufusah and Zuwarah in Libya, in Jerba Island in Tunisia, and in Wad Mzab in Algeria. Very little is known about the Ibadlyah, their doctrines, origins and development. Modern European scholars have made useful contributions in the field of Ibadi studies but their studies were directed mainly to the history of the Ibadl communities or some aspects of their present social and religious life.

Clements 1994, 153: the object of this study is to describe the accounts of early Islamic Oman and early Ibāḍism in the Arabic sources. The study makes use of newly discovered Ibāḍī manuscripts in Oman and tries to avoid the parochialism and dogmatism of these sources and the one-sided representation by Muslim historians. The author has attempted to provide a critical evaluation of these sources and to provide background information on Omani society and tribal structure. Ubaydli 1995b, 159: intended to introduce the large body of Ibāḍī material recently discovered or published in Oman, using classical Arabic sources along with this material to study the early history of the sect.

Patterns and processes of post-war Tunisian migration are examined in this thesis from a spatial perspective. The concept of 'migration regions' proved particularly interesting in this context, highlighting the orderly character of internal migration Comparison of different taxonomic procedures for transforming interaction matrices not only illustrated the advantages and disadvantages of different clustering techniques, but also facilitated explanation of contemporary migration patterns The hypothesis of the 'mobility transition' provides an interesting yardstick against which trends in internal migration and other mobility characteristics may be measured Although the development of Tunisian migration resembles in some respects the pattern prescribed by the mobility transition hypothesis, it IS shown that it would be wrong to conclude that the evolution of Tunisian migration is a predetermined unilinear process International migration grew rapidly in importance to Tunisian job seekers in the late 1960s and early 1970s, becoming more important in some regions of Tunisia than out-migration to Tunis. Calculation of migration quotients for emigration to France and Libya shows that international movement of workers has been a highly selective process, not only with regard to migrant characteristics, but also with regard to regions of origin and destination. An attempt is made to explain the changing pattern of Tunisian emigration, and to identify elements of spatial order within the evolving emigration process migration both at the internal and international scale is closely associated with migrants aspirations for occupational and social mobility. An understanding of the complex relationships between these different forms of mobility is a prerequisite to meaningful migration planning. The thesis concludes by out ling the relevance to policy formulation of spatial analysis of migration and employment which the Tunisian government might adopt for migration and manpower planning,