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This thesis analyses the external and internal influences on the process of state formation in Oman since 1920 and places this process in comparative perspective with the other states of the Gulf Cooperation Council. It considers the extent to which the concepts of informal empire and collaboration are useful in analysing the relationship between Oman, Britain and the United States. The theoretical framework is the historical materialist paradigm of International Relations. State formation in Oman since 1920 is examined in a historical narrative structured by three themes: (1) the international context of Western involvement, (2) the development of Western strategic interests in Oman and (3) their economic, social and political impact on Oman. The incorporation of the Arabian littoral into the security sphere of the British empire in India separated the Imamate in the mountainous interior of Oman from the British-backed Sultans in Muscat. This culminated in the Treaty of Sib in 1920 following which the government of the Sultanate was restructured by British officials. The discovery of oil in Bahrain in 1932 marked a new phase in the incorporation of the Arabian peninsula into the capitalist world-system. In south-east Arabia this led to the occupation of the interior in 1955 by the British-supported forces of Sa'id bin Taimur. The coup of 1970 in which Qabus became Sultan allowed the development of a pro-Western rentier state and the defeat of the rebels in Dhofar. British imperial withdrawal from the region was completed with the relinquishment of its bases in the Sultanate of Oman in 1977. The development of a strategic relationship between Oman and the United States in the 1980s enhanced American military deployment during the Kuwait crisis of 1990-1991. In the aftermath of this conflict Oman faces the challenge of political development in an environment of diminishing oil reserves.

This research undertakes a critical evaluation and analysis of the leadership style at higher education institutions in Oman and determines whether the direction it takes is in strict conformity with creating an enabling environment there. To address this, Saxena’s framework on creating an enabling environment in higher education is used as a foundation, along with the theoretical concepts of transformational leadership to explore the role of heads of higher education institutions in creating an enabling environment. Hence, the major question examined in this thesis is: “To what extent do presidents and deans create an enabling environment and act as transformational leaders at private higher education institutions in Oman?”<br/><br/>The research employed a mixed method design in which data were collected through a combination of semi-structured interviews with presidents, deans, officials, and recent graduates. A survey of lecturers, full-time employees, and students was also undertaken to seek their views. The target sample in the main research was drawn from six private universities and colleges and selected public Ministries.<br/><br/>In line with the theoretical structure, the findings of the research show the higher education environment in Oman to be an area of concern. The findings highlight four gaps, which also fall in line with the four components introduced by Saxena. The first gap is between the higher education institutions and industry; the second gap relates to empowerment among staff, management, governance and authorities; the third gap is between physical environment and facilities; and the fourth gap is between research and teaching. The findings recommend a leadership framework to provide necessary guidelines for creating an enabling environment.<br/><br/>The research opens avenues for upcoming researchers who would add more to the previously achieved goals so that the sustenance offered by lifelong learning may also be perpetuated in the years to come.

The rapid economic and social development in the Sultanate of Oman has led to an increasing demand for higher education since 1970. The Government is now involved, and is encouraging the private sector to provide higher education services through colleges and universities in order to prepare Omanis with the qualifications and skills required to support the country`s future political economic development.<br/>Higher education in the Sultanate of Oman has a range of different challenges, such as educational policies and regulations, the management of universities and colleges, funding, and maintaining quality standards in higher education institutions.<br/>One of the major challenges facing the decision makers in higher education in Oman is the effectiveness of the leadership of colleges and universities. Strong academic leadership is paramount to the effective running of educational institutions, and a professional measurement is needed to analyse the current management of these institutions. There is the need for a proper policy to ensure the recruitment of suitable leaders to run these establishments in order to respond to the dynamic changes within the society.<br/>The public and the government want to maintain a balanced situation where the private higher education institutions are enjoying a good income while providing quality education.<br/>The research aims to analyse the type of leadership required in higher education in Oman by examining government policies and strategies related to higher education. More specifically, it will evaluate the performance of leadership at the level of presidents and deans and their roles in selected private higher education institutions. By doing so, different leadership theories, perceptions of leadership and possible measures for assessing the effectiveness of leadership will be interpreted and analysed.<br/>This research is inductive based on a qualitative and exploratory approach. The findings have contributed to the development of an academic leadership model applicable to the Oman higher education institutions, and have generated some recommendations to develop the performance of presidents and deans of higher education institutions to attain the level which is acceptable to the Government and Omani society.

عمان جزء من الخليج العربي تتميز بموقع جغرافي مهم، فهي تحتل الركن الجنوبي الشرقي لشبه الجزيرة العربية الذي يتمتع بحصانة متميزة بسبب الحواجز الطبيعية المحيطة به، حيث يحيطها من الشمال والشرق والجنوب على التوالي كل من الخليج العربي وبحر عمان وبحر العرب وتطل من خلاله على المحيط الهندي. وبذلك تمكنت عمان بحكم موقعها الإستراتيجي المفتوح على العالم الخارجي من التحكم في معاير التجارة العالمية مما أكسبها تميزا إستراتيجيا، وكذلك شخصية مهمة جعلتها محط أنظار الدول العظمى لتتنافس عليها. وقد سعت بريطانيا للحفاظ على أمن واستقرار امبراطوريتها في الهند وتأمين مصالحها الإستعمارية في الخليج العربي فتصدت للدول الاستعمارية الأخرى المنافسة لها سيما فرنسا والتي كانت تسعى لمحاربة الوجود البريطاني في الهند وكسر احتكار بريطانيا التجاري والملاحي في منطقة الخليج العربي وعمان التي أصبحت محورا أساسيا من محاور الصراع الدولي، حيث سعت فرنسا من خلال تحركاتها العسكرية والديبلوماسية الى كسب ود حكام عمان ومحاولة إبعادهم عن النفوذ البريطاني تمهيدا للسيطرة على طرق التجارة البريطانية ومن ثم فرض شروطها على بريطانيا في الهند والحصول منها على امتيازات في أماكن أخرى من مناطق التنافس الأوروبي الاستعماري في العالم وتصاعدت حدة الصراع بين القوتين العظيمتين آنذاك في عمان، وتحث هذه الدراسة في مرحلة زمنية مهمة من مراحل التاريخ العماني لمعرفة أسباب الصراع البريطاني الفرنسي في عمان خلال الفترة من عام 1897 إلى عام 1913م، والنتائج التي أدى إليها الصراع. وتم تحديد الإطار الزمني لهذه الدراسة في الفترة الممتدة بين عامي 1897-1913م، وهي فترة من حكم السلطان فيصل بن تركي لعمان وقد دارت فيها أهم ثلاث أزمات أدت إلى تدهور العلاقات بين الدولتين حيث إن كلتا الدولتين كانت تتمنى النفس بموقع عمان الإستراتيجي القريب من مستعمراتها. واختياري لدراسة هذه الفترة جاء للكشف عن أهم جوانت الصراع وتوضيح الحقائق المرتبطة به، وذلك لكون هذه الفترة مهمة في التاريخ العماني ولم تحظ بدراسة متعمقة مستقلة على الرغم من كثرة المؤلفات والدراسات التي تناولت التاريخ العماني، وذلك أن كثيرا ممكن كتبوا عن السياسة البريطانية والفرنسية في عمان هم من المستشرقين والأجانب الذين اعتمدوا في كتاباهم على التقارير السياسية لحكوماتهم ولذلك اعتراها الكثير من التشويش في الحقائق التاريخية كما أن الباحث اضاف مادة علمية حديثة مدعمة بالوثائق التي تزيح الغموض عن الكثير من الأحداث التي تتعلق بموضوع الدراسة، وأحسب أن موضوع هذه الدراسة من الموضوعات المهمة نظرا لارتباطها بأحداث سياسية خلفت نتائج مؤثرة في تاريخ الصراع البريطاني الفرنسي في عمان